CRJS478IP3 Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

CRJS478IP3 - Research Paper Example The focus of this process is on the short tandem repeats (STR) that have short units of DNA that are repeated several times in a row. After the DNA is isolated and amplified it is treated with restriction enzymes. The process cuts the DNA strands at definite sequences called restriction fragment length polymorphisms (RFLPs). Since everybody’s DNA is different the resulting RFLPs will be of different sizes. These fragments are observed in gel electrophoresis; a process that separates DNA based on the size of fragments (Brown, 2010). RFLP analysis is based on the fact that since everyone’s genetic sequence or the variable number of tandem repeats is different this result in the different sizes of RFLPs. Gel electrophoresis involves separation of the fragments of DNA as they migrate through an agarose gel when an electric current is applied to the gel. The DNA that has separated is then drawn out of the gel with a nylon membrane which is treated to break the hydrogen bonds holding the DNA strands together. The separated strands of the DNA are then incubated using a radioactive probe and cross-linked to the nylon membrane of a strand comparable to the VNTRs. The radioactive probe is visible on a photographic film as a dark spot is left on the film because of the light that is given off when the probe decays. Different people have different patterns and these constitute the fingerprints. This protocol of DNA fingerprinting is called Southern blotting (Brown, 2010). The main objective of DNA analysis is to obtain an observable representation of the DNA from the crime. The DNA profile obtained from DNA fingerprinting must match the DNA from the suspect or a profile in the DNA database. The three possible results from comparing a DNA profile of the sample to the suspects DNA profile and it can either be inclusive, exclusive or inconclusive. Inclusions occur where the suspects DNA

A self assessment on intercultural negotiating skills Essay

A self assessment on intercultural negotiating skills - Essay Example There are different communication styles that can be used and these will be outlined in the paper. Characteristics of a good intercultural negotiator Cross culture communication and negotiation mainly involve people from different cultural backgrounds and this has a bearing on the way they communicate. The culture of different people shape the way people communicate and exchange ideas (Fujio, 2004). According to Armstrong (1994), culture in the organization refers to shared beliefs, values, attitudes as well as assumptions which shape their behaviour as well as the way they view different things around them. All the people in the organization have shared beliefs as well as values. Dbhaibo & Harb (2010) suggest that the way people communicate and behave is shaped by their cultural values. Hofstede’s framework of cultural diversity mainly influences different types of studies that are related to cross cultural communication and management which include the following four dimensi ons of national culture: â€Å"individualism versus collectivism, power distance which is concerned with how power is distributed, uncertainty avoidance which talks about how uncertainty is found to be uncomfortable, quality versus quantity of life† (Robbins, 1993, p. 75). In order for a person to be a good intercultural negotiator, there are many issues that should be considered by the people involved. In case of a distributive type of negotiation, a good intercultural negotiator attempts to discover the other person’s BATNA. The person who suggests a strong offer is likely to achieve positive results as a result of the fact that the other person is likely to concede certain instances (Thompson 2005). The use of statements or questions is also very important since it helps to establish the quality of the relationship that may exist between the two negotiators involved. Thus, a good intercultural negotiator should establish how the other person communicates as well as to try to establish the relationship that exists between parties involved. The other important factor that should be taken into account about what makes a good intercultural negotiator is to try to differentiate between Utilitarian Discourse System (UDS) which is about the message itself and the Confucian Discourse System (CDS) which is concerned about the quality of relationship that exist between the two people communicating with each other. For instance, the Americans prefer the UDS system when negotiating while the Japanese or Chinese prefer CDS. According to a study conducted by Misa Fujio (2004) entitled â€Å"Silence during intercultural communication: a case study,† it can be noted that styles of communication between the people involved in the communication process differ as a result of the fact that they have different cultures. Silence is used as a way of communication by the Japanese this is a different case with the Americans who do not use silence as part of the ir communication process. In order to avoid unnecessary frustration, a good intercultural negotiator must establish the way another person communicates so as to be able to exchange meaningful ideas. Lin & Miller (2003) suggest that negotiation approach is influenced by factors which include national culture, commitment as well as the quality of relationship that exist between the two. For example, the â€Å"Chinese emphasise on collectivism while the Americans focus on individualism (Hsu, 1985 as cited in Lin and Miller, 2003). A good

Canon Case Study Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 1

Canon Case Study - Essay Example As going to be discussed below, it can be noted that Canon employs various strategies and has to a greater extent managed to meet the strategic challenges and changes as a result of the key success story in its operation. However, in view of the above explanations, it can be noted that Canon instead has been successful in managing its strategies by virtue of embarking on an open approach in formulation of strategic plans rather than being imposed by the top management. Its strategies are influenced and driven by the strategic vision of Canon’s senior and other managers. This strategy is very flexible in that it promotes an open door policy where views from other equally important decision makers are taken into consideration towards the attainment of the overall organisational goals. In most cases, strategic planning is viewed as bureaucratic in nature where it is often regarded as a preserve for the top management to impose their views and vision about the company on the other work mates. Canon’s policy is flexible and open to accept ideas from other people within the organisation. Through technological differentiation, Canon has managed to grow from strength to strength to catch Xerox which had been a world leader in the photocopying market since the 1950s. They have managed their strategic challenges as well as changes by developing technology that was completely different from Xerox and this offered new features which were not very common by then which gave them the competitive advantage against this rival competitor. Technology is dynamic and is expected to change constantly hence taking into account these changes is one guaranteed way of trying to keep up pace with the new developments in the market which will also ultimately impact positively on any business. Another strategy that was used by Canon was to target the small photocopier niche markets which

Recruitment and Selection Strategies Essay Example for Free

Recruitment and Selection Strategies Essay rganizational goals: Mr. Stonefield, when choosing applicants that will be suitable matches for your limousine service can be accomplish by ensuring that you hire those individual that share similar views, values, and beliefs. By doing this you will not only benefit the company, you will see greater productivity from your employees and most of all loyal, long-term employees that express their satisfaction. If both Mr. Stonefield (the business) and the employee parallel in their thoughts, views, and strategic goals, there will be an aspiration for each individual to see through to the needs of their coworkers as well as the desire to see the business survive and thrive. Mr. Stonefield you will find that an employee will be loyal and give there 100%. Forecasted demographic changes: An analysis of projected workforce needs for the next 5 years will need to be based on the businesses goals as well as demographic changes to both the work force, economy as well as industrialization. By identifying and following the trends of the economy, work force and unemployment rates will assist the business in predicting changes to come. By knowing these trends Landslide Limousine Services may be able to stay one step ahead of its competitors. Workforce diversity objectives: In order for Landslide Limousine Services business to be triumphant and survive the initial start-up, the workforce must be diverse enough to compliment the targeted market and consumer base. With the marriage of the employees and the business goals it shows the consumers of this passenger transportation business that Landslide Limousine Services are striving to match individual interests. A survey and gain insight as to their patrons’ views and patterns. Drivers and chauffeurs will be able to customize and individualize the service they offer by knowing  their clientele. An example that comes to mind would be: a client is in Austin for business. This client enjoys theater productions. If a driver knows the likes and dislikes of his or her client then they can do research on what productions are happening during their clients stay and offer the information about what is going on in Austin. It is the belief that there are three elements in setting the motion for Mr. Stonefield’s business: First, Landslide Limousine should establish a strong commitment to the diversity in the workplace. This commitment needs to begin at the top and weaved within and through all employees who work for the company. It is advisable that Landslide’s senior and upper management model the behavior therefore showing that they are in full support and respect of diversity in the workplace. Second, Landslide will need to understand and gain a precise insight to the businesses eagerness to move forward and keeping in touch with up to date demographics of the industry and the cultural diversity. Mr. Stonefield and his team must develop a workforce profile. By doing this they will gain an understanding of the workforce and the potential hiring pool. By profiling the workforce and the potential hiring pool allows for complete diversity that will be beneficial to all crucial positions and organizational elements. By researching and monitoring trends and workforce reports published quarterly and annually are great resources and sources of data in regards to employment movement. Researching social networks and potential employees can prove to be useful when making employment decisions and offers. Affirming that the employee are of the caliber both personally and professionally that Landslide wants as part of the team. The outcome would be gaining a professional and a precise view of a company’s demographic profile. By combining and comparing this information will assist in planning and Landslide’s workforce model. This information will also assist Landslide in predicting potential future prospects for recruitment, hiring, and retention. Organizational branding: Landslide unlike any other business will need to frequently examine and revisit their organizations corporate strategy, mission, image, and activities which will contribute to their organizational branding. Organizational branding is what a business exclusive and distinctive. This in itself will create distinguishing factors that will set itself apart from the competitors. By using and exploiting these methods and procedures, Landslide will be able to place its  professionalism, persona and look in the mind of its clientele, potential clients and employees and thus creating and establishing an image that is transparent in wh at Landslide is and why it exists. Methods for recruiting candidates: Initially, due to the fact that Landslide is a new business Mr. Stonefield will not be able to utilize the method of internal sourcing. However once the business is established and services are rendered Landslide will then be able to incorporate the process of internal sourcing for recruiting candidates. Internal sourcing consists of posting the vacated or new position in an easily and highly visible area within a business for current employees to view. Internal sourcing is a very valuable tool to use as it utilizes the internal candidate pool and is a cost saving measure for the business as current employees are at present employees of the company and is acquainted and accustomed to the culture of the business and allows the employee a feeling of â€Å"climbing the ladder† thus creating success for the employee as there will be little to no training and orientation for the new position. There is a potential disadvantage to internal sourcing, there may be a chance of stagnation as it does not allow for the potential for fresh new ideas that external sourcing may bring. Therefore it would be post haste of the marketing department to keep up with changes in the market and knowing what other similar businesses are doing. As stated above another potential recruiting method is external sourcing. External sourcing focusing on utilizing outside sources for advertising for candidates. Landslide may want to advertise job openings and postings in the newspapers, local papers, Craig’s list, online,- internet job services, use local job boards and trade publication announcements. Examples of online job posting sites are LinkedIn, Craig’s List, Texas Job Services, Monster.com and CareerBuilders.com. External sourcing has many advantages as it is not limited to a captive audience, meaning current employees. It also allows for new views, thoughts and ideas in this ever changing business market and workforce. External sourcing also has its disadvantages, that starting with a new employee means cost are incurred to train and orient them. It will take time for the new hire to learn the culture, ins and outs of the business. There needs to be a screening process during the initial application process that will screen out the individuals that would not be a fit for the company as well as screen out those individuals that would be a  fit the company and its organizational culture. Another option is third-party sourcing. This sourcing makes use of job placement agency to find qualified job candidates. The similar recruiting processes are used for third-party Sourcing as does external sourcing. However, one major difference is that a job placement agency is not a direct part of Landslide business itself. Landslide contracts with job placement agency(ies) to help identify potential qualified candidates. Third-party sourcing has its advantages: it will save Landslide time and funds by identifying qualified candidates. Another advantage is that Landslide may be able to minimize their human resources department so that HR employees can focus on hiring and training of the new hires. Dependent on the turnover rate of the company’s employees, Landslide may want to entertain the idea of identifying when hiring should be made. This may be a process that is identified after one to two years of operations. By pinpointing norming and trends within the business will assist in recognizing when there is a higher need to fill positions. If possible to limit the times of hiring to only a certain period of time(s) during the year. Landslide will want to take into consideration its growth and level of employee turnover as well as the cost of contracting with a hiring agency that it may be appropriate to fluctuate between internal and external sourcing. There are also a number of other potential avenues of recruiting potential employees such as recruiting individuals that are retired and of retirement ages, contacting vocational rehabilitation services to employ individuals with disabilities, college fairs, job fairs and high school vocational classes. Methods for screening candidates: There and multiple steps in the screening process. The initial screening conducted is during the internal, external sourcing the process is quick and unrefined selection method. Candidates submit applications and references. This screening process reviews the application, references and conducts background checks as well as interviews. Selection of candidates is time intensive as its process is more detailed and comprehensive than the initial screening. The actual selection process gives HR and the hiring managers a fuller view and insight of candidates by observing the individuals behavior. This behavioral screening can be obtained via having the candidate partake in a number of assessments such as job skills test and face to face interviews and gathering information as to the candidates’  character through reference and background checks. Interview methods: There are many types of interview methods that Landslide could use. However the below are some suggested methods: 1) The first being a behavior-based interview: Through behavior-based interviews, Landslide will be able to gain insight about the candidate by asking scenario based or direct questions describing examples and situations they may have experienced and how they handled themselves. These interview questions give light to behaviors in past employment(s) allowing Landslide to potentially predict future behaviors. 2) Situational Interviews: Having candidate answer interview questions of a hypothetical nature. Testing procedures: Below are various testing method suggestions: 1) Ability tests: Tests the mental clerical, mechanical, physical, or technical ability to perform the essential functions of the job. 2) Knowledge tests: Measures candidates’ job-specific knowledge about the position. 3) Personality Inventories: Due to the need for some of Landslide’s personnel to be extraverted. For example an extremely introverted individual may not be a good match in driving individuals to and from their destinations. The position involve one on one human interaction. 4) Performance/Work sample tests: Test the candidate on actual work environment and performance. Interview process considerations: 1.Landslide should avoid illegal discrimination: As Mr. Stonefield stated he expects to hire 25 employees. It will be imperative that Landslide develop a working knowledge of all anti-discrimination laws and rules. Federal law prohibits discriminating on the basis of race, gender, pregnancy, national origin, religion, disability, and age. However Landslide will also become knowledgeable of local and state requirements to protect against discrimination. 2.Applicants have a right to privacy it is advisable that Landslide avoid asking questions that would infringe rights to privacy. Such questions are about race, parentage and marital status 3.Landslide must follow federal and state guidelines and rules in regards to hiring immigrants. Landslide should ensure that they hire individuals that are documented citizens or legal aliens. Applicants must complete federally  required documents such as I-9’s and W-4’s with supporting evidence. Landslide must make copies and inspect employee provided supporting documents to make sure they are legal and binding. Methods for selecting candidates: Since Landslide is a new business in the Austin, Texas area that they should start with advertising their job openings. The applicant selection begins through recruitment, either external sourcing or third party sourcing. At this point all resumes and applications are screened for only those qualified to continue to the next step. Those candidates are then interviewed. The next step begin with making contact with the applicant by telephone asking the applicant to commit to an in person interview. This initial telephone contact is one of many first impressions. Once the applicant interviews and passes they go forward to the testing portion of the hiring process. Building diversity within Landslide Limousine Services will be extremely important. This will potentially widen the clientele base worldwide. When a client knows that the business is multilingual and culturally savvy. The clients will respect and patron Landslides services over and over again. Landslide will also be viewed as being a diverse workplace that honors all races and ethnicities. Various laws that must be considered when hiring – especially in a diverse workforce would be: The Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967, The Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986, The Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 Family and the Medical Leave Act of 1993 and Sexual Harassment. References Cascio, Wayne F. (2013). Managing Human Resources: Productivity, Quality of Work Life, Profits (Ninth Edition). New York, NY. University of Phoenix (2013). Week Six Difficult Concepts. Retrieved on Saturday, December 14, 2013 at: https://ecampus.phoenix.edu/secure/aapd/Materials/IP/curriculum/sb/HRM531/week_6_video.asp

Risk management by indian banks

Risk management by indian banks Case analysis: Risk management by Indian banks The banking and financial crises in recent years in emerging economies have demonstrated that, when things go wrong with the financial system, they can result in a severe economic downturn. From this perspective, financial sector reforms are essential in order to avoid such costs. These reforms have become the tools for banks to manage risk. Some of the tools are: 1) Interest Rate Scenario The first important issue that I would like to highlight relates to interest rates. Interest rates reflect strongly to inflation rates, there has been a distinct downward drift in the inflation rate during the second half of the 1990s, which is now at around half the level as compared with the first half of the 1990s. Both the popular measures of inflation the Wholesale Price Index (WPI) and the Consumer Price Index (CPI) have shown a definite fall in the recent period. This is clearly reflected in the downward trend in nominal interest rates. The banks have also reduced their deposit rates. But the lending rates of banks have not come down as much. While banks have reduced their prime lending rates (PLRs) to some extent and are also extending sub-PLR loans and effective lending rates continue to remain high (Table 1 and Chart 1). 2) Lending to Small and Medium Enterprises Banks have now understood the problems with lending large organizations. The large organization not only reduces the interest rates by bargaining but also makes default payments by which banks are under tremendous risk, and hence banks are now making a move to provide more loans to small and medium enterprises. 3) Revival of Long-Term Financing The development finance institutions (DFIs) were set up in the 1950s to provide medium and long-term finance to the private sector. Many of these institutions were sponsored by the Government. DFIs were expected to resolve long-term credit shortages and to acquire and disseminate skills necessary to assess projects and banks creditworthiness. The current trend is of DFIs converting themselves into banks. In this context, the future of long-term lending acquires great importance. 4) Non-Performing Assets As of March 31, 2002, the gross NPAs of scheduled commercial banks stood at Rs.71,000 crore, of which the NPAs of public sector banks constituted Rs.57,000 crore. The absolute amount of NPAs continues to be a major drag on the performance of banks. Banks uses the process of securitisation of assets to remove NPAs from the balance sheets. 5) Investing in government securities: In the current interest rate environment, banks are finding it more profitable to invest in government securities. In 2001-02, trading profits of public sector banks more than doubled to Rs.5,999 crore from Rs.2,250 crore in 2000-01. The net profits of these banks during these two years were Rs.4,317 crore and Rs.8,301 crore respectively and this includes an additional Rs.1,365 crore and Rs.1,547 crore from forex operations. The Reserve Bank has been encouraging banks to be proactive in risk management and banks have been directed to maintain a certain level of Investment Fluctuation Reserve (IFR). TABLE 1 : REAL INTEREST RATES Year Weighted Weighted Average Average Inflation Rate Real Interest Rate Ended Average Average Cost of Cost of WPI Manufact- CPI-IW Borrowers Central Depositors March Lending Interest Rate Aggregate Time uring Price Government Rate of of Central Deposits Deposits SCBs Government of SCBs of SCBs Securities 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9=(2-7) 10=(3-6) 11=(5-8) 1990-91 15.0 11.4 8.1 10.6 10.3 8.4 4.6 6.6 1.1 6.0 1991-92 16.5 11.8 7.1 9.1 13.7 11.3 13.5 5.2 -1.9 -4.4 1992-93 16.8 12.5 7.7 9.6 10.1 10.9 9.6 5.9 2.4 0.0 1993-94 16.5 12.6 6.9 8.7 8.4 7.8 7.5 8.7 4.2 1.2 1994-95 16.1 11.9 6.4 7.0 12.5 12.2 10.1 3.9 -0.6 -3.1 1995-96 17.1 13.8 6.9 8.5 8.1 8.6 10.2 8.5 5.7 -1.7 1996-97 16.9 13.7 7.6 9.4 4.6 2.1 9.4 14.8 9.1 0.0 1997-98 16.3 12.0 7.3 8.8 4.4 2.9 6.8 13.4 7.6 2.0 1998-99 15.5 11.9 7.4 8.9 5.9 4.4 13.1 11.1 6.0 -4.2 1999-00 15.0 11.8 7.1 8.6 3.3 2.7 3.4 12.3 8.5 5.2 2000-01 14.3 11.0 6.8 8.1 7.2 3.3 3.8 11.0 3.8 4.3 2001-02 13.9 9.4 7.0* 8.3* 3.6 1.8 4.3 12.1 5.8 4.0 Average 1990-91 to 1995-96 16.3 12.3 7.2 8.9 10.5 9.9 10.4 6.5 1.8 -0.3 1996-97 to 2001-02 15.3 11.6 7.2 8.7 4.8 2.9 6.8 12.5 6.8 1.9 Table 2 : Comparative Position of International Real Interest Rates Country / Money Long-term Prime Rate Inflation Rate GDP Growth Period Average Market Rate G-sec Yield United States 1991 to 1996 1.50 3.71 4.40 3.09 2.58 1997 to 2001 2.73 3.20 5.73 2.46 3.37 United Kingdom 1991 to 1996 4.05 5.30 4.25 3.25 1.92 1997 to 2001 3.40 2.77 3.46 2.57 2.76 Germany 1991 to 1996 3.63 4.09 9.04 2.85 3.20 1997 to 2001 1.99 3.17 7.75 1.57 1.75 Japan 1991 to 1996 2.00 2.78 3.57 1.16 1.74 1997 to 2001 0.09 1.40 2.07 0.13 0.69 Korea 1991 to 1996 7.50 7.21 3.16 5.99 7.35 1997 to 2001 4.79 5.85 6.74 3.82 4.31 Thailand 1991 to 1996 3.71 5.78 7.74 4.97 8.17 1997 to 2001 3.22 4.65 6.98 3.44 -0.20 China 1991 to 1996 N.A. N.A. -2.09 12.32 11.61 1997 to 2001 N.A. N.A. 6.28 0.23 7.93 India 1991 to 1996 3.43 N.A. 6.57 10.52 5.41 1997 to 2001 3.40 5.87 7.62 5.08 6.14 Hungary 1991 to 1996 N.A. N.A. 5.11 25.04 -1.63 1997 to 2001 N.A. N.A. 4.13 12.29 4.52

Natural Born Killers :: essays papers

Natural Born Killers Violence is a constant on our screens whether it be an anvil falling on a cartoon character, a war zone on the news, a fight in an action movie or a pub brawl in a soap opera. But does this screen violence produce behavioural effects in the viewers? This is one of the most frequent and heatedly debated arguments in mass media. Is it the case that audiences are effected by what they see and that the producers of media texts are instigating or increasing violent behaviour, or do audiences have the ability to understand what they have seen without being overly influenced? It has to be ascertained as to whether audiences are passive or active. This subject has caused controversy within several of different schools of thought and ideologies over the years. They have either wide or only slight variations of opinion so it is difficult to come to one definite conclusion as each one also has valid and understandable explanations. It is difficult to deny that 'the whole point of communicating is to influence one another by conveying information' (Vine, 1997), but to what extent does this influence take control? To investigate this matter and come to a conclusion as to whether or not screen violence does instigate violent behaviour in the reader, we will be critically looking at two of the major ideological models as well as using some specific media texts to validate and/or criticise these theories. First there is the Hypodermic Needle or Hypodermic Syringe effect. This theory has it's root in 1950's America when dominant businesses and the then government wanted to discover how far the public were influenced by what they saw on television. The Hypodermic Theory came from this Media Effects model, which had a heavy emphasis in psychology. Businesses and the government alike wanted to know how much 'media is supposedly 'injected' into the consciousness of an audience' via television (Price, 1993). They wanted to know if through this relatively new medium the public could be persuaded unquestioningly to, for example, vote for a certain political party or buy a specific brand of washing powder. The Hypodermic model proposes that the media has a very direct and extremely immediate effect on the general public, who accept the injected message without question due to their passiveness. It is the idea that producers of media texts can persuade us to do what ever they want and we will unquestionably comply. When we bring the subject of violence into this field, a follower of this ideology would say that the violent behaviour witnessed on screen would be influentially accepted by the audience without question.

Null Hypothesis

Why We Don’t â€Å"Accept† the Null Hypothesis by Keith M. Bower, M. S. and James A. Colton, M. S. Reprinted with permission from the American Society for Quality When performing statistical hypothesis tests such as a one-sample t-test or the AndersonDarling test for normality, an investigator will either reject or fail to reject the null hypothesis, based upon sampled data. Frequently, results in Six Sigma projects contain the verbiage â€Å"accept the null hypothesis,† which implies that the null hypothesis has been proven true.This article discusses why such a practice is incorrect, and why this issue is more than a matter of semantics. Overview of Hypothesis Testing In a statistical hypothesis test, two hypotheses are evaluated: the null (H0) and the alternative (H1). The null hypothesis is assumed true until proven otherwise. If the weight of evidence leads us to believe that the null hypothesis is highly unlikely (based upon probability theory), then we hav e a statistical basis upon which we may reject the null hypothesis. A common misconception is that statistical hypothesis tests are designed to select the more likely of two hypotheses.Rather, a test will stay with the null hypothesis until enough evidence (data) appears to support the alternative. The amount of evidence required to â€Å"prove† the alternative may be stated in terms of a confidence level (denoted X%). The confidence level is often specified before a test is conducted as part of a sample size calculation. We view the confidence level as equaling one minus the Type I error rate (? ). A Type I error is committed when the null hypothesis is incorrectly rejected. An ? value of 0. 05 is typically used, corresponding to 95% confidence levels.The p-value is used to determine if enough evidence exists to reject the null hypothesis in favor of the alternative. The p-value is the probability of incorrectly rejecting the null hypothesis. The two possible conclusions, af ter assessing the data, are to: 1. Reject the null hypothesis (p-value ? ) and conclude that there is not enough evidence to state that the alternative is true at the pre-determined confidence level of X%. Note that it is possible to state the alternative to be true at the lower confidence level of 100*(1 – p-value)%. Ronald A.Fisher succinctly discusses the key point of our paper: In relation to any experiment we may speak of†¦ the â€Å"null hypothesis,† and it should be noted that the null hypothesis is never proved or established, but is possibly disproved, in the course of experimentation. Every experiment may be said to exist only in order to give the facts a chance of disproving the null hypothesis. 1 A Helpful Analogy: The U. S. Legal System Consider the example of the legal system in the United States of America. A person is considered innocent until proven guilty in a court of law.We may state this particular decision-making process in the form of a hypo thesis test, as follows: H0: Person is innocent vs. H1: Person is not innocent (i. e. , guilty) The responsibility then falls upon the prosecution to build a case to prove guilt beyond a reasonable doubt. It should be borne in mind that a jury will never find a person to be â€Å"innocent. † The defendant would be found â€Å"not guilty† in such a situation; i. e. , the jury has failed to reject the null hypothesis. Decisions Based on Data We must keep in mind, of course, that it is always possible to draw an incorrect conclusion based upon sampled data.There are two kinds of error we can make: †¢ Type I error. When the null hypothesis is rejected, practitioners refer to the Type I error when they present results, using language such as: â€Å"We reject the null hypothesis at the 5% significance level,† or â€Å"We reject the null hypothesis at the 95% confidence level. † †¢ Type II error. A second possible mistake involves incorrectly failing t o reject the null hypothesis. The power of a test is defined as one minus the Type II error rate, and is therefore the probability of correctly rejecting H0. The sample size plays an important role in determining the statistical power of a test.When statisticians address small sample sizes, they often refer to the power to justify their concerns. One may argue that the sample size would be too low to correctly detect a difference from the hypothesized value, if that difference truly existed. Example of a Test with Low Power Consider a test that compares the mean of a process to a target value. The null and alternative hypotheses are, respectively: H0: Process mean on target vs. H1: Process mean different from target Suppose two observations are collected daily to monitor for a change in the process mean (i. e. , n = 2). Assume a one-sample t-test is carried out at the ? 0. 05 significance level (95% confidence level) and the resulting p-value is above 0. 05. Fig. 1 One-Sample t-Test As is shown in Figure 1, there is less than a 50% chance (power = 0. 4944) such a test will correctly reject the null hypothesis even when the difference between the process mean and the target is six standard deviations. This is obviously an enormous statistical difference, yet the test (owing to the small sample size) would not be sensitive to it. The danger in concluding the process is on target with a sample size of two, for this example, is evident. ImplicationsAssessing and relaying findings in a cogent manner is critical for Six Sigma practitioners. In statistical hypothesis testing procedures, this means that investigators should avoid misleading language such as that which implies â€Å"acceptance† of the null hypothesis. Reference th 1. Ronald A. Fisher, The Design of Experiments, 8 ed. (New York: Hafner Publishing Company Inc. , 1966), 17. Bibliography 1. Lenth, Russell V. â€Å"Some Practical Guidelines for Effective Sample Size Determination. † The Americ an Statistician 55, no. 3 (2001): 187-193. 2. Tukey, John W. â€Å"Conclusions vs. Decisions. † Technometrics 2, no. 4 (1960): 423433.